Many people make the scope of their analysis larger than they can manage. Uncertain as to whether they can find enough about one aspect of a topic, they address the whole topic. Unfortunately, by grouping all aspects together rather than separating them, such people tend to ignore important distinctions, miss subtleties, and distort the relationships among ideas. Any inquiry and judgment that follow such a beginning are likely to be shallow and oversimplified.
Skilled analysis, on the other hand, understand that if they conduct their inquiry carefully, they will usually find more than enough to say about even a small aspect of an issue. They know that a quality analysis, particularly of a controversial matter, usually demands that their focus be severely limited. They realize that unless they are writing a long book, they must sacrifice breadth of treatment to achieve depth. In other words, they have learned the wisdom of the saying, "Less is more."
HOW TO CLARIFY AND ISSUE
To get the most out of our thinking we must, like the skilled analysts, limit our topics appropriately. That is, we must determine at the outset what aspect or aspects of the broad general issue we are concerned with. We should select the particular aspect we wish to focus on, and in doing so settle not for a rough, vague notion but only a precise one. The following steps provide a quick yet effective way to select and clarify an issue.
1.List as many specific subheadings as you can that are included under the broad, general issue you have chosen. In the case of an important controversial issue, your list may include more than a dozen subheadings, each of which is a minor issue in itself and therefore a challenge to your critical thinking. 2.Decide exactly which specific issue (subheading) you are concerned with. Seldom will you be able to treat all specific issues adequately. The one or ones you choose should not only meet your interest but also fit the occasion and purpose of your analysis and the amount of time and space you have available. 3.Express the specific issue (subheading) you are concerned with in one or more clear, carefully focused questions. Doing this helps keep the subsequent inquiry focused and prevents your drifting from the issue. If the questions are written out, when your thoughts move in a certain direction, you can quickly glance at the questions and decide whether that direction is likely to be productive.
Let's see how these three steps apply to some actual issues.
SAMPLE ISSUE: ABORTION
In January 1973 the U.S. Supreme Court decided in Roe v. Wade that abortion was legal. Yet as we enter the final decade of this century the American people are sharply divided on the matter. Like most controversial matters, the issue of abortion is not merely a single issue but a cluster of smaller issues. No contribution to the discussion of abortion is likely to be worthwhile unless it begins with an awareness of that fact. Here is how our three-step approach can help you separate the individual parts of that cluster and deal with them meaningfully. (For the sake of brevity, the left column presents the subheading in the form it might first occur to you, and the right column shows how, after deciding that you were concerned with it, you might refine the subheading into a question.)
The Subheading The Question A woman's right over her body Does a woman have the right to decide how her body will be used? If so, should the fetus be considered a part of her body? The doctor's role Does the doctor have an obligation only to the patient (the woman) or to the fetus as well? The status of the fetus At what point, if any, during a pregnancy does the fetus become a human being? The role of law If the fetus at some point during the pregnancy becomes a human being, do the enforcers of the law (the police and the courts) have any obligation to protect its right? The stage of the pregnancy At what times during a pregnancy, if any, should an abortion be permitted? (First three months? First six months? Any time before birth?) The age of the woman Should the woman's age be a factor in the decision whether to permit an abortion? Should a child of thirteen be treated the same as a woman of forty? Cases of rape and incest Should cases of rape and incest be treated differently from other cases? That is, does the fact that the woman was raped or impregnated by a close relative create a special warrant for abortion? Parental consent for minors Should parental consent be required before abortions are performed on minors? Government assistance for the poor Should the government, through Medicaid, pay for the abortions of women who lack the financial means to pay for them themselves? The right of the father does the husband or lover of a woman who seeks an abortion have any right? If he opposes the abortion, should the woman be permitted to have it anyway? A constitutional amendment to ban abortion should the U.S. Constitution be amended to ban abortion (or to extend the guarantees of law to the unborn from the moment of conception?)
SAMPLE ISSUE: BOXING
The ring Record Book lists 337 professional boxers who have died from injuries sustained in prizefights since World War II. In the United States alone, 120 boxers have died form such injuries.[ "Tragedy May Haunt Mancini," Binghamton Press, November 16, 1982, p.4D.] With the death of a Korean fighter, Duk Doo Kim, following a barrage of punches by Ray "Boom Boom" Mancini, an issue that had received the public's attention many times previously raged once again: Should boxing be outlawed? Like the abortion issue, this one is really a cluster of smaller issues. Here is how the three step approach to clarifying issues would apply to it.
The Subheading The Question The boxer's right to earn a living Would the outlawing of boxing be an unfair denial of the boxer's right to earn a living? Boxing and mental health Is the expression of violence that takes place in a boxing match an emotionally healthy experience for the fighters themselves? For the spectator? The popularity of boxing How valid is the argument that boxing should be allowed to continue because it has historically been, and continues to be, very popular? The classification of boxing as a sport Is boxing properly classified as a sport? That is, does the fact that the contestants aim to render each other senseless disqualify it from that classification? Overcoming the dangers Is it possible, perhaps by modifying the rules or the equipment, to eliminate or at least reduce the physical danger to fighters? The effects of being punched Exactly what effect does a punch have on the human body, particularly the brain? What is the cumulative effect of the punches received during ten or fifteen rounds of boxing? During a career?
SAMPLE ISSUE: JUVENILE CRIME
For much of this century juvenile criminals have been accorded special treatment in the courts. Because the emphasis was on rehabilitating rather than on punishing them, the charges were different – "juvenile delinquency" rather than assault or murder – as were the proceedings and disposition of the case – "hearings" rather than trails, sealed records rather than publicity, and lectures rather than imprisonment. In recent years, however, the public has become dissatisfied with that system. Many people are demanding that criminals be treated as criminals, regardless of their age. The broad issue is usually expressed as "Should juvenile criminals be treated the same as adult criminals?" however, like the other issues we have examined in this chapter, this broad issue represents a cluster of smaller issues, which you might clarify as follows:
The Subheading The Question Causes of juvenile crime Are juvenile delinquents alone responsible for their criminality? Are parents and others in society (makers of violent films, for example) also responsible? If others are responsible, should the law "get tough" with them? How? The age of responsibility Is it reasonable or fair to hold people responsible for their actions before they are old enough to understand their moral and legal quality? At what age does a person reach such understanding? Similarities or differences between juveniles and adults Is it reasonable to hold a fourteen-year-old (or a sixteen- or eighteen-year-old) as accountable as a twenty-one- or thirty-year-old? Effect of publicity on juvenile crime Will publicizing young people's crimes deter juvenile crime? Will it assist in the process of rehabilitation? effects of imprisonment on juveniles What effect will imprisonment have on teenagers? On preteens? Differences in crimes Should all juvenile crimes be handled alike? That is, should the criminal's age be considered in certain crimes (Vandalism and shoplifting, for example), but not considered in others (rape and murder, for example)? Recidivism Should chronic juvenile offenders be treated differently from first-time offenders? If so, in what way? Prisons If juvenile offenders are sent to prison (say, for crimes of violence), should they be housed in the same institutions as adult criminals?
By identifying precisely the issue we wish to examine, we not only ensure a clearer focus and increase the chance that we will not exceed our competency. We also make the job of analysis easier. The fewer aspects competing for our attention, the less distracted and confused we are likely to be. Even on those rare occasions when we will be addressing the entire issue in all its aspects, careful identification of those aspects can make our inquiry more orderly and purposeful. Finally, precise identification of the issue lessens the chance of oversimplifying complex matters.
APPLICATIONS
1.This chapter explains three steps that are helpful in selecting and clarifying an issue for analysis. Apply those steps with each of two of the following topics. Be sure to select topics that interest you, because applications in subsequent chapters will build on this one. a.Should the federal income tax system in the United States be reformed? b.Is sex education desirable in elementary and secondary schools? c.Should the divorce laws be tightened so that it is more difficult to obtain a divorce? d.Is it possible for a sane person to commit suicide? e.Does a government ever have the right to impose the death penalty for a criminal offense? f.Should prostitution be legalized? g.Should lobbying by special interest groups be outlawed? h.Should advertising be banned from children's TV (for example, from Saturday morning cartoon shows)? i.Are people who practice devil worship insane? j.Is it reasonable to believe in UFOs? k.Are male athletes naturally superior to female athletes? 2.The following topics were included in the applications for Chapter 1. Choose one of the topics and apply the three steps for clarifying an issue presented in this chapter. (Disregard your earlier analysis of the issue.) a.Should freshman composition be a required course for all students? b.Should athletes be tested for anabolic steroid use? c.Should creationism be taught in high school biology classes? d.Should polygamy be legalized? e.Should be voting age be lowered to sixteen? f.Should extremist groups like the Ku Klux Klan be allowed to hold rallies on public property? g.Should the prison system give greater emphasis to the punishment or to the rehabilitation of inmates? h.Should doctors and clinics be required to notify parents of minors when they prescribe birth control devices for the minors?